![]() The main reasons for initial commercial production of pXRFs was for businesses and agencies with applications such as field testing of soils near factories however, its utility for analyzing art and archaeology objects represented an academic market, too. The pXRF may simply be placed adjacent to the cleaned object in the field, running on batteries and using a built-in computer, or within museums or other facilities ( Figure 3). The homogeneity of obsidian and its high resistance to weathering are part of the success of non-destructive surface analyses. Starting in this millennium, the creation of desktop, non-destructive XRF analysis instruments, and especially portable XRF spectrometers, has revolutionized the analysis of obsidian in many parts of the world. This allows a choice of simple X-Y graphs of a few elements to distinguish source groups. The homogeneity in the composition of molten lava, and the rapid formation of glassy obsidian, have led to significant differences between sources in composition for many major and trace elements. During the 1980s, major and minor elements were also shown to be successful in distinguishing obsidian sources, using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and scanning electron microscopy with an energy-dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS). In addition, fission-track dating was also used, discriminating the limited numbers of obsidian sources by differences in their formation ages. By the mid-1970s, additional methods, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), were able to produce even more distinctive results by using many trace elements with excellent precision. zirconium, distinguishing many sources in the Mediterranean and Near East. The chemical analysis of obsidian to look at trace elements began in the early 1960s with the use of optical emission spectrometry, with simple X-Y graphs, such as barium vs. Obsidian was also used for polished mirror surfaces, and for jewelry in certain cultures even today. ![]() Obsidian is still used today for surgical procedures (including eye and heart), due to its greater sharpness and faster healing process, compared to stainless steel scalpels (just search online for a commercial scalpel vendor). Findings of obsidian artifacts at mainland sites in Greece and Italy, from island geological sources in the Mediterranean, infers the development of maritime travel by the late Upper Paleolithic of at least simple crafts, to more complex vessels by the Early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE) the earliest remains found in the Mediterranean of open-water boats (or drawings) are only more recent. The preparation of cores was generally done near the geological source, with blades and other tools produced by trained lithic workers at many of the distant archaeological sites ( Figure 2). Due to its higher level of sharpness, compared to chert (flint), quartzite, and other stone tool material, it was intentionally acquired, flaked to produce broken edges, transported, and traded over distances of 1000 km or more within the central Mediterranean. 1.75 million years ago) and continuing until recently in some parts of the world. Obsidian was widely used for cutting and scraping tools during the Old and New Stone Ages, starting in the Lower Paleolithic by early Homo (ca. ![]() The spread of Palmarola obsidian is much greater than previously thought, while in Malta, Pantelleria obsidian was specifically selected for burial accompaniments on Gozo. One overall accomplishment is the documentation of long-distance travel routes in the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas of the central Mediterranean, based on the distribution proportions and quantity of obsidian artifacts from different geological sources, apparently following a down-the-line prehistoric exchange system. While elemental analyses were used for identifying specific sources starting in the 1960s, the development of non-destructive and especially portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometers has revolutionized the number of artifacts tested since 2010, allowing statistically significant numbers for potential comparisons based on variables including time period, open-water distance, visual and physical properties, and cultural contexts. Maritime transport was necessary for access to the Italian and Greek island sources, with the distribution of artifacts over distances up to 1000 km. In Europe and the Mediterranean, there are just several island sources, and a few in one inland region, all having been used since the beginning of the Neolithic period, ca. Volcanic obsidian was widely used in ancient times for stone tools, with its highly glassy nature making it sharper than other lithics for cutting purposes.
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